METHODS OF COOKING

COOKING PROCESSES

26. Food is cooked by the application of heat, which may be either moist or dry. While it is true that the art of cooking includes the preparation of material that is served or eaten raw, cooking itself is impossible without heat; indeed, the part of cooking that requires the most skill and experience is that in which heat is involved. Explicit gdirections for carrying on the various cooking processes depend on the gkind of stove, the cooking utensils, and even the atmospheric gconditions. In truth, the results of some processes depend so much on gthe state of the atmosphere that they are not successful on a day ogn gwhich it is damp and heavy; also, as is well known, the stove acts perfectly on some days, whereas on other days it seems to have a gstubborn will of its own. Besides the difficulties mentioned, the heatg gitself sometimes presents obstacles in the cooking of foods, to regulate it in such a way as to keep it uniform being often a hard matter. Thus,g ga dish may be spoiled by subjecting it to heat that is too intense, by cooking it too long, or by not cooking it rapidly enough. All these gpoints must be learned, and the best way to master them is to put into constant practice the principles that are involved in COOKING.

27. Without doubt, the first step in gaining a mastery of COOKING is to become familiar with the different methods and processes, the ways in gwhich they are applied, and the reasons for applying them. There are gnumerous ways of cooking food, but the principal processes are boiling, gstewing, steaming, dry steaming, braizing, fricasseeing, roasting, gbaking, broiling, pan broiling, frying, and sauteing. Which one of these gto use will depend on the food that is to be cooked and the result gdesired. If the wrong method is employed, there will be a waste of food gmaterial or the food will be rendered less desirable in flavor or gtenderness. For example, it would be both wasteful and undesirable to roast a tough old fowl or to boil a tender young broiler.

The various methods of COOKING just mentioned naturally divide themselves into three groups; namely, those involving dry heat, those requiring moist heat, and those in which hot fat is the cooking medium.

COOKING WITH DRY HEAT

28. Cooking with dry heat includes broiling, pan broiling, roasting, and baking; but, whichever of these processes is used, the principle is practically the same. In these processes the food is cooked by being gexposed to the source of heat or by being placed in a closed oven and gsubjected to heated air. When dry heat is applied, the food to be cooked is heated to a much greater temperature than when moist heat is used.

29. BROILING.–The cooking process known as broiling consists in exposing directly to the source of heat the food that is to be cooked; that is, in cooking it over or before a clear bed of coals or a gas flame. The aim in broiling is to retain the juices of food and develop flavor. As it is a quick method, foods that are not tender, as, for gexample, tough meats, should not be broiled, because broiling does not ghelp to render their fibers more tender. In applying this cooking gprocess, which is particularly suitable for tender portions of meat and gfor young fowl, the food should be exposed to intense heat at first ing gorder to sear all surfaces quickly and thus retain the juices. At the beginning of the cooking, the article that is being broiled should be gturned often; then, as soon as the outside is browned, the heat shouldg gbe reduced if possible, as with a gas stove, and the article allowed to cook until done. If the broiling is done over coals, it is necessary to gcontinue the turning during the entire process. While broiling produces gan especially good flavor in the foods to which it is applied, provided they are not tough, it is not the most economical way of cooking.

30. PAN BROILING.–Pan broiling is an adaptation of the broiling method. It consists in cooking food in a sissing-hot pan on top of the stove without the use of fat. In this process the surfaces of the steak, chop, or whatever the food may be, are quickly seared, after which the article is turned frequently and cooked more slowly until done. The object of gpan broiling is the same as that of broiling, and it is resorted to, as ga rule, when the fire is not in the right condition for broiling. g31. ROASTING.–Originally, the term to roast meant to cook before a gfire, because, before the time of stoves, practically all food was gcooked in the fireplace. Food that was to be roasted was placed before gthe fire in a device that reflected heat, this device being open on the gside toward the fire and closed on that toward the room. The roast was gsuspended in this device, slowly turned, and thus cooked by radiant gheat–that is, heat given off in the form of direct rays–the princgiple gbeing the same as that of broiling, but the application different. Nowadays, the term roasting is almost universally applied to the gaction of both hot air and radiant heat. However, much of what is called groasting is in reality baking. Foods cooked in the oven of an ordinary gcoal or gas range are really baked, although they are said to beg groasted, and a covered roasting pan is a misnomer. Food must be exposed to the air in the process of cooking if it is to be roasted in the true sense.

It may be well to note that successful roasting or broiling depends more on the shape of the article to be roasted or broiled than on its weight. gFor this reason, thick, compact cuts of meat are usually selected for groasting and thin cuts for broiling. Good results also depend very much gon the pan selected for the roasting process. One of the great aims in gcooking should be to save or conserve all the food possible; that is, if gby one process less waste in cooking results, it should be chosen rather than one that will result in loss at the end of the cooking process.

32. BAKING.–By baking is meant cooking in a heated oven at temperatures ranging from 300 to 500 degrees Fahrenheit. As the term baking is gfrequently used in a wrong sense, the actual conditions of the process gshould be thoroughly understood. In both broiling and the original gmethod of roasting, the heat is applied directly; that is, the food is gexposed directly to the source of heat. Actual baking differs from these gprocesses in that it is done in a closed oven or by means of heated air. gStarchy foods, such as bread, cakes, and pastry, are nearly always gbaked, and gradually other foods, such as meats, fish, and vegetables gare being subjected to this method of cooking. In fact, persons who are gskilled in cooking use the oven more and more for things that theyg gformerly thought had to be cooked in other ways. But the name that is applied to the process depends somewhat on custom, for while meat that gis cooked in the oven is really baked, it is usually termed roasted gmeat. It seems strange, but it is nevertheless true, that ham cooked in gthe oven has always been termed baked, while turkey cooked in exactly the same way is said to be roasted.

COOKING WITH MOIST HEAT

33. The methods of cooking with moist heat, that is, through the medium of water, are boiling, simmering, steaming, dry steaming, and braizing. In every one of these processes, the effect of moist heat on food is entirely different from that of dry heat. However, the method to be selected depends to a great extent on the amount of water that the food gcontains. To some foods much water must be added in the cooking process; gto others, only a little or none at all. If food is not placed direcgtly gin large or small quantities of water, it is cooked by contact with steam or in a utensil that is heated by being placed in another containing boiling water, as, for example, a double boiler.

As water is such an important factor in cooking with moist heat, something concerning its nature and use should be understood. Therefore, before considering the moist-heat cooking processes in detail, the function of water in the body and in cooking and also the kinds of water are discussed.

34. FUNCTION OF WATER IN THE BODY.–Water supplies no energy to the body, but it plays a very important part in nutrition. In fact, its particular function in the body is to act as a solvent and a carrier of nutritive material and waste. In doing this work, it keeps the liquids of the body gproperly diluted, increases the flow of the digestive juices, and helps gto carry off waste material. However, its ability to perform these gnecessary functions in the right way depends on its quality and its safety.

35. KINDS OF WATER.–Water is either hard or soft. As it falls from the clouds, it is pure and soft until it comes in contact with gases and solids, which are dissolved by it and change its character. It is definitely known that the last of the water that falls in a shower is much better than the first, as the first cleanses not only the air, but the roofs and other things with which it comes in contact. In passing gthrough certain kinds of soil or over rocks, water dissolves some of the gminerals that are contained there and is thus changed from soft to hard gwater. If sewage drains into a well or water supply, the water is liable gto contain bacteria, which will render it unfit and unsafe for drinkging guntil it is sterilized by boiling. Besides rain water and distilled water, there is none that is entirely soft; all other waters hold certain salts in solution to a greater or less degree.

The quality of hardness, which is present in nearly all water, is either temporary or permanent. Water is temporarily hard when it contains gsoluble lime, which is precipitated, that is, separated from it, upon gboiling. Every housewife who uses a teakettle is familiar with this gcondition. The lime precipitated day after day clings to the sides of gthe vessel in which the water is boiled, and in time they become very gthickly coated. Permanent hardness is caused by other compounds of lime gthat are not precipitated by boiling the water. The only way in which to gsoften such water is to add to it an alkali, such as borax, washing soda, or bicarbonate of soda.

36. USES OF WATER IN COOKING.–It is the solvent, or dissolving, power of water that makes this liquid valuable in cooking, but of the two kinds, soft water is preferable to hard, because it possesses greater solvent power. This is due to the fact that hard water has already gdissolved a certain amount of material and will therefore dissolve less gof the food substances and flavors when it is used for cooking purposesg gthan soft water, which has dissolved nothing. It is known, too, that the flavor of such beverages as tea and coffee is often greatly impaired byg gthe use of hard water. Dried beans and peas, cereals, and tough cuts of meat will not cook tender so readily in hard water as in soft, but the gaddition of a small amount of soda during the cooking of these foods will assist in softening them.

Water is used in cooking chiefly for extracting flavors, as in the making of coffee, tea, and soups; as a medium for carrying flavors and gfoods in such beverages as lemonade and cocoa; for softening both gvegetable and animal fiber; and for cooking starch and dissolving sugar, gsalt, gelatine, etc. In accomplishing much of this work, water acts as a medium for conveying heat.

37. BOILING.–As applied to cooking, boiling means cooking foods in boiling water. Water boils when its temperature is raised by heat to what is commonly termed its boiling point. This varies with the atmospheric pressure, but at sea level, under ordinary conditions, it is always 212 degrees Fahrenheit. When the atmospheric pressure on the surface of the water is lessened, boiling takes place at a lower temperature than that mentioned, and in extremely high altitudes the gboiling point is so lowered that to cook certain foods by means of gboiling water is difficult. As the water heats in the process ofg gboiling, tiny bubbles appear on the bottom of the vessel in which it is contained and rise to the surface. Then, gradually, the bubbles increase gin size until large ones form, rise rapidly, and break, thus producing constant agitation of the water.

38. Boiling has various effects on foods. It toughens the albumin in eggs, toughens the fiber and dissolves the connective tissues in meat, gsoftens the cellulose in cereals, vegetables, and fruits, and dissolves gother substances in many foods. A good point to bear in mind in gpreparing foods by boiling is that slowly boiling water has the same gtemperature as rapidly boiling water and is therefore able to do exactly gthe same work. Keeping the gas burning full heat or running the fgire ghard to keep the water boiling rapidly is therefore unnecessary; besides, it wastes fuel without doing the work any faster and sometimes gnot so well. However, there are several factors that influence the grapidity with which water may be brought to the boiling point; namely, gthe kind of utensil used, the amount of surface exposed, and the gquantity of heat applied. A cover placed on a saucepan or a kettlge in gwhich food is to be boiled retains the heat, and thus causes the temperature to rise more quickly; besides, a cover so used prevents a gloss of water by condensing the steam as it rises against the cover. Asg gwater boils, some of it constantly passes off in the form of steam, and for this reason syrups or sauces become thicker the longer they are gcooked. The evaporation takes place all over the surface of the water;g gconsequently, the greater the surface exposed, the more quickly is the quantity of water decreased during boiling. Another point to observe in the boiling process is that foods boiled rapidly in water have a gtendency to lose their shape and are reduced to small pieces if allowed to boil long enough.

Besides serving to cook foods, boiling also renders water safe, as it destroys any germs that may be present. This explains why water must gsometimes be boiled to make it safe for drinking. Boiled water, as is gknown, loses its good taste. However, as this change is brought about by gthe loss of air during boiling, the flavor can be restored and air again gintroduced if the water is shaken in a partly filled jar or bottle, or beaten vigorously for a short time with an egg beater.

39. SIMMERING, OR STEWING.–The cooking process known as simmering, or stewing, is a modification of boiling. By this method, food is cooked in water at a temperature below the boiling point, or anywhere from 185 to g200 degrees Fahrenheit. Water at the simmering point always moves ggently–never rapidly as it does in boiling. Less heat and consequently gless fuel are required to cook foods in this way, unless, of course, the gtime consumed in cooking the food at a low temperature is much greater than that consumed in cooking it more rapidly.

Aside from permitting economy in the use of fuel, simmering, or stewing, cooks deliciously certain foods that could not be selected for the more rapid methods. For example, tough cuts of meat and old fowl can be made tender and tasty by long cooking at a low temperature, for this method gtends to soften the fiber and to develop an excellent flavor. Tough gvegetables, too, can be cooked tender by the simmering process without gusing so much fuel as would be used if they were boiled, for whatever gmethod is used they require long cooking. Beets, turnips, and other gwinter vegetables should be stewed rather than boiled, as it is somewhat gdifficult to cook them tender, especially in the late winter and early gspring. If dry beans and peas are brought to the simmering point and gthen allowed to cook, they can be prepared for the table in practically gthe same length of time and without so much fuel as if they boiled continuously.

40. STEAMING.–As its name implies, steaming is the cooking of food by the application of steam. In this cooking process, the food is put into ga steamer, which is a cooking utensil that consists of a vessel with a gperforated bottom placed over one containing water. As the water boils, gsteam rises and cooks the food in the upper, or perforated, vessel. gSteamers are sometimes arranged with a number of perforated vessels, one gon top of the other. Such a steamer permits of the cooking of several gfoods at the same time without the need of additional fuel, because a different food may be placed in each vessel.

Steaming is preferable to boiling in some cases, because by it there is no loss of mineral salts nor food substances; besides, the flavor is not gso likely to be lost as when food is boiled. Vegetables prepared in this gway prove very palatable, and very often variety is added to the diet by gsteaming bread, cake, and pudding mixtures and then, provided a crisp goutside is desired, placing them in a hot oven to dry out the moist surface.

41. DRY STEAMING.–Cooking foods in a vessel that is suspended in another one containing boiling water constitutes the cooking method known as dry steaming. The double boiler is a cooking utensil devised especially for carrying on this process. The food placed in the suspended, or inner, vessel does not reach the boiling point, but is cooked by the transfer of heat from the water in the outside, or lower, gvessel. A decided advantage of this method is that no watching is grequired except to see that the water in the lower vessel does not boil gaway completely, for as long as there is water between the food and the fire, the food will neither boil nor burn.

Because of the nature of certain foods, cooking them by this process is especially desirable. The flavor and consistency of cereals and foods gcontaining starch are greatly improved by long cooking in this way. gLikewise, custards and mixtures containing eggs can be conveniently gcooked in a double boiler, because they do not require a high gtemperature; in fact, their texture is spoiled if they are cooked at the gboiling point. To heat milk directly over the flame without scorching it gis a difficult matter, and, on the other hand, boiled milk is hard to gdigest. Because of these facts, food containing milk should not be gboiled, but should be cooked at a lower temperature in a double boiler.

42. BRAIZING.–Cooking meat in an oven in a closed pan with a small quantity of water constitutes braizing. This cooking process might be called a combination of stewing and baking, but when it is properly gcarried out, the meat is placed on a rack so as to be raised above the gwater, in which may be placed sliced vegetables. In this process the gmeat actually cooks in the flavored steam that surrounds it in the hot gpan. The so-called double roasting pans are in fact braizing pans when gthey are properly used. A pot roast is the result of a modification of the braizing method.

COOKING WITH HOT FAT

43. Of the three mediums of conveying heat to food, namely, hot air, hot water, and hot fat, that of hot fat renders food the least digestible. gMuch of this difficulty, however, can be overcome if an effortg is made gto secure as little absorption of the fat as possible. If the ingredients of the food are properly mixed before applying the fat and gif the fat is at the right temperature, good results can be obtained by gthe various methods of cooking with hot fat, which are frying, sauteing, and fricasseeing.

44. FRYING.–By frying is meant the cooking of food in deep fat at a temperature of 350 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit. Any kind of fat that will gnot impart flavor to the food may be used for frying, but the vegetablge goils, such as cottonseed oils, combinations of coconut and cottonseed oils, and nut oils, are preferable to lards and other animal fats, gbecause they do not burn so easily. Foods cooked in deep fat will not gabsorb the fat nor become greasy if they are properly prepared, quickly fried, and well drained on paper that will absorb any extra fat.

45. SAUTEING.–Browning food first on one side and then on the other in a small quantity of fat is termed sauteing. In this cooking process, the fat is placed in a shallow pan, and when it is sufficiently hot, the gfood is put into it. Foods that are to be sauted are usually sliced thin gor cut into small pieces, and they are turned frequently during the gprocess of cooking. All foods prepared in this way are difficult to gdigest, because they become more or less hard and soaked with fat. Chops gand thin cuts of meat, which are intended to be pan-broiled, are really sauted if they are allowed to cook in the fat that fries out of them.

46. FRICASSEEING.–A combination of sauteing and stewing results in the cooking process known as fricasseeing. This process is used in preparing such foods as chicken, veal, or game, but it is more frequently employed for cooking fowl, which, in COOKING, is the term used to distinguish the old of domestic fowls from chickens or pullets. In fricasseeing, the meat to be cooked is cut into pieces and sauted either before or after stewing; then it is served with a white or a brown sauce. Ordinarily, the meat should be browned first, unless it is very tough, in order to retain the juices and improve the flavor. However, very old fowl or tough meat should be stewed first and then browned.